Understanding Fate in Oedipus Tyrannos - 1196 Words

The Greeks were one of the most powerful empires of early civilizations with the well documented conquest, legends, gods, etc. One of their most significant things left of their empire, is their theatrical style, none bigger than Tragedy. The Greek Tragedy was their basis of Drama and is still studied today. Their view of the world and life could be personified in the plays and by the personages. It is the case in the play Oedipus Tyrannos. The play, written by Sophocles, represents the typical Greek view of the world with all the values that the Greeks wanted to show. This play is probably the best example to represent the typical tragic hero, in that case Oedipus. The dominant theme that Sophocles wanted to demonstrate in the play was†¦show more content†¦Oedipus taught that he had escaped his fate from what he knew, by going away from his adopted family but, that action led him to accomplish his fate that was killing his father and sleeping with his mother and have childr en with her. He killed his father, king Laios, in an argument in a road closes to Thebes for passage rights, solved the riddle of the sphinx and became the king, slept with his mother and had children with her and finally on hearing the truth, removes his sight as a sign of dishonour to him, his family and to the Gods. This shows that fate is something that was beyond human power and that is not possible to chance or avoid it. One definition that can explain why the characters in Greek tragedy were doomed to accomplish their fate would be the fact that both the characters and mankind in the plays lacked both free will and reflective actions that led them to have a fatal fate (Kierkegaard, 1944). It is also the human side that led Oedipus to his fate. The goodness of his actions of trying to get away from what he taught was his real father and mother in order for them to live and escape his fate. For example, Oedipus is taught to be arrogant but, his arrogance can be interpreted by r efusing to hear or see or even admit what he has done to try to escape his fate but, eventually, it turned on him in the bad way because his fate still managed to claim his superiority over humans. Another great example of his goodness is the simple fact of him wantingShow MoreRelatedOedipus As A Tragic Hero1724 Words   |  7 PagesIn the story of Oedipus, Oedipus is considered a â€Å"Tragic Hero† because of the tragic fate and effect that he had upon his life. My definition of a tragedy is a great loss that has a unhappy ending to which concluded me to state that Oedipus falls under that category. Throughout the book, Oedipus is leading himself to his own destruction when trying to find the killer of the late King Laios. So when a journal article I found published by The John Hopkins University Press stated that a â€Å"tragic heroRead MoreMorality in Oedipus Rex Essay1785 Words   |  8 Pagesthe time of the ancient Greeks Sophocles’ play Oedipus Tyrannus is see n as the quintessential model of Greek Tragedy. This is due to the intricate questions of morality that are masterfully woven into the literature and the fact that â€Å"perhaps no classical Greek play that has stimulated as much critical discussion† (Harris and Platzner Classical Mythology: Images and Insights, p.648). One of the dominant arguments the tragedy generates is whether Oedipus is responsible for the abhorrent crimes of patricideRead MoreScripting Stage Space in Oedipus the King and Hamlet2416 Words   |  10 Pagespeople have long been studying and teaching plays as if they were meant to be read rather than performed. A central part of a plays meaning is the way it was originally designed to work on stage. William Shakespeares Hamlet and Sophocles Oedipus the King have long been included on academic lists for scholarly study as literary texts. As someone who has studied both texts in just the manner Hornby mentions, I would suggest that what is lost when a scholar treats a play text as literature isRead MoreEssay on Analysis of Penelope as Moral Agent in Homer’s Odyssey3049 Words   |  13 Pagesthis essay that I could find is the ignorance of a few facts that could possibly be construed as being in opposition to her findings. Since I am not familiar with and have not read any of the outside texts to which Foley refers (Aristotles Oedipus Tyrannos, Poetics, Politics, and Ethics, the Hippocratic medical texts, and the feminist theory of Carol Gilligan), I can only assume that her interpretations of these texts are correct. In any case, she uses Aristotle and Hippocrates in order to develop

Essay British Poetry - 4052 Words

Knowledge of contemporary British poetry is of great importance when it comes to understanding the reigning trends of England. The 1970s saw a fair amount of polemic concerning the discontinuities of the national traditions, most of it concerned with poetry, all of it vulnerable to a blunt totalizing which demonstrated the triumphant ability of nation to organize literary study and judgment--as it does still, perhaps more than ever. It remains the case twenty years later that there is a strong hint of the majority of the english poets to rediscover their ‘Englishness’ as a poet, and at the same time the presence of the various other cultures ensures that their remains a deep variety in the crative material. The temptation†¦show more content†¦When the war ended the new poetry which emerged still bore traces of the measured and uneventful thirties verse that had gone before it. Poets of what became known as the neo-Romantic movement, Vernon Watkins (1906-1967), W.S.Graham (1918-1986), Patricia Beer (1919- ), George Barker (1913-1991) and John Heath-Stubbs (1918- ) and others, wrote as if the British world had not changed irrevocably. The influence of pre-war founder figures W.B.Yeats (1865-1939), T.S.Eliot (1888 - 1965), Edwin Muir (1887-1959), Louis MacNeice (1907-1963), W.H.Auden (1907-1973), and Robert Graves (1895-1985) remained strong. The modernists David Jones (1895-1974) and Basil Bunting (1900-1985), with Hugh MacDiarmid (C.M.Greive - 1892-1978) in Scotland, stayed outsider forces. In Wales the Thomases, Dylan (1914-1953) and R.S. (1913-2000), made great marks on the map. But the poetry was not yet a true product of its times. The reaction came in the early fifties, and by the time Dylan Thomas died in 1953, The Movement as the new tendency was called had obtained a coherence. The work of its poets nurtured rationality, was inhospitable to myth, was conversationally pitched (although lacking the speech rhythms of American counterparts like William Carlos Williams (1883-1963) and was deliberately formal and clear. Movement poets opposed modernism and had little truck with international influences. They regarded themselves as a direct continuation of mainstream EnglishShow MoreRelatedThe Evolution of British Poetry Essay927 Words   |  4 Pages The Evolution of British Poetry nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Throughout the literary history of the Renaissance, a gradual but dramatic change in the poetic style of the time becomes apparent. From one contribution to another, the rebellion between the poetic styles is evident. Early Elizabethan and Jacobean poetry demonstrates the love that mankind shares and the universal truths that the people of that time held so dear. On through the neoclassical and romantic eras, the style becomes centeredRead MoreLiterary Group in British Poetry5631 Words   |  23 PagesThe history of English poetry stretches from the middle of the 7th century to the present day. Over this period, English poets have written some of the most enduring poems in Western culture, and the language and its poetry have spread around the globe. Consequently, the term English poetry is unavoidably ambiguous. It can mean poetry written in England, or poetry written in the English language. The earliest surviving poetry was likely transmitted orally and then written down in versions that doRead MoreBritish Romantic Poetry As A Revolutionary Part Of England s Culture Essay1489 Words   |  6 PagesBritish romantic poetry was remarkable for a myriad of reasons. Not only did it vouch for a focus on nature in literature, but also showed an increased interest in both the emotion of the average person, and a heightened esteem for imagination as well as the wonder and amazement that accompanied children. Of course, it showed a darker side of the world as well, with some of the more distinguished writers focusing on the poor and how they lived. Stylistically, there was also a clear influence fromRead MoreVowel and British Poetry Assignment784 Words   |  4 PagesMEG-01: BRITISH POETRY ASSIGNMENT Max. Marks: 100 Programme: MC;G Assignment Code: MEGO 1 llMA120 10- 1 1 Dear Student. In a conventional class your teacher would have discussed your assignment with you, pointed out what made a good essay and what a bad one. We have done exactly the same thing in Unit 52 of the Thereafter decide upon a topic, i.e. a period or literary group in the history of British Poetry. You may, if you wish, select a topic from the list given in 52.2.1 (p.70). AlternativelyRead MoreEssay on Walt Whitman1376 Words   |  6 Pagesrhythmical, metrical, and structural poetry. It was this end that bothered Whitman, for he believed that each word in a poem should serve only one purpose: to harmonize with the name, nature, and drift of the poem. To understand exactly what characteristics of traditional poetic rules posed such problems for Whitman, we must establish a working definition of what this means. Traditional poetic rules are those determined through the history of British poetry . This statement in itself leavesRead MoreHistory Of Ancient Poetry Ghosh ( 1 )995 Words   |  4 PagesHistory of the ancient poetry GHOSH (1) The period of time of concerning 500-100AD in British history was characterized by foreign invasions and internal struggles. This resulted within the admixture of many races, tongues and cultures. Once the Romans departed from British Isles in 407 AD fighting continuing between the Picts and therefore the Scots who had lost their common enemy. The fifth century additionally saw conquests and therefore the gradual occupationRead MoreJohn Keats Essay968 Words   |  4 PagesEnfield School; he succumbed John to be a surgeon, so John worked at Guy’s Hospital, where he attended lectures and operations. (â€Å"Keats, John(1795-1821).†) Even though John was an apothecary, he maintained a strong passion for writing poetry. In 1816, John envied writing poetry as a profession, which led to his remembrance to this day. Abbey was not happy with John’s decision, so Abbey refused to financially support John. The decision of John being a poet had a detrimental financial strain on him and affectedRead MoreWar and Modernism Poems During the Earky 1900s Essay999 Words   |  4 Pageswhich Yeats is often regarded as one of the founders. 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The Lost Duke of Wyndham Chapter Twelve Free Essays

string(39) " looks much worse than it actually is\." Jack did (eventually) find his bedchamber, but even though he knew he’d likely still have been happily asleep if he hadn’t been determined to join Grace at breakfast, when he lay down atop his covers, intending to take a restorative nap, he found himself unable to do so. This was profoundly irritating. He had long prided himself on his ability to fall asleep at will. We will write a custom essay sample on The Lost Duke of Wyndham Chapter Twelve or any similar topic only for you Order Now It had come in handy during his years as a soldier. No one ever managed to acquire the correct sleep, either in quality or amount. He would steal his slumber where he could, and his friends had been eternally jealous that he could prop up against a tree, close his eyes, and be asleep within three minutes. But not, apparently, today, even though he’d traded a knobby tree for the finest mattress money could buy. He closed his eyes, took his customary long, slow breaths, and†¦nothing. Nothing but Grace. He’d like to have said she was haunting him, but that would have been a lie. It wasn’t her fault that he was a fool. And in truth, it wasn’t just that he was completely desperate for her (although he was, and most uncomfortably, too). He couldn’t get her out of his mind because he didn’t want to get her out of his mind. Because if he stopped thinking about Grace, he would have to start thinking about other things. The possibility of his being the Duke of Wyndham, for one. Possibility†¦Bah. He knew it was true. His parents had been married. All that was needed was to locate the parish register. He closed his eyes, trying to push back the overwhelming feeling of dread that was bearing down on him. He should have just lied and said that his parents had never wed. But blast it, he had not known the consequences when he said that they had. No one had told him he’d be crowned the bloody duke. All he’d known was that he was so damned furious with the dowager for kidnapping him and with Wyndham for staring at him like he was something to be swept under the rug. And then Wyndham had said, in that smarmy, superior voice of his: If indeed your parents were married†¦. Jack had snapped out his reply before he had a chance to consider the consequences of his actions. These people were not better than he was. They had no right to cast aspersions on his parents. It was too late now, though. Even if he tried to lie and recant his words, the dowager would not rest until she’d burned a trail through Ireland in search of the marriage documents. She wanted him to inherit, that much was clear. It was difficult to imagine her caring for anyone, but she had apparently adored her middle son. His father. And even though the dowager had not shown any particular fondness for him – not that he had made much of an effort to impress – she clearly preferred him over her other grandson. Jack had no idea what had transpired between the dowager and the current duke, if anything. But there was little affection between the pair. Jack stood and walked to the window, finally admitting defeat and giving up on the notion of sleep. The morning sun was already bright and high in the sky, and he was suddenly seized by a need to be out of doors, or rather, out of Belgrave. Strange, that one could feel so closed-in in such a massive dwelling. But he did, and he wanted out. Jack strode across the room and snatched up his coat. It was satisfyingly shabby atop the fine apparel of Wyndham’s he’d donned that morning. He almost hoped he bumped into the dowager, just so she could see him all dusty and road-worn. Almost. But not quite. With quick, long strides he made his way down to the main hall, just about the only location he knew how to get to. His footsteps were annoyingly loud on the marble as he walked forth. Everything seemed to echo here. It was too big, too impersonal, too – â€Å"Thomas?† He stopped. It was a female voice. Not Grace. Young, though. Unsure of her surroundings. â€Å"Is that – I’m so sorry.† It was indeed a young woman, of medium height, blond, with rather fetching hazel eyes. She was standing near the doorway of the drawing room he had been dragged into the day before. Her cheeks were delightfully pink, with a smattering of freckles he was sure she detested. (All women did, he’d learned.) There was something exceptionally pleasant about her, he decided. If he weren’t so obsessed with Grace, he would flirt with her. â€Å"Sorry to disappoint,† he murmured, offering her a roguish smile. This wasn’t flirting. This was how he conversed with all ladies. The difference was in the intention. â€Å"No,† she said quickly, â€Å"of course not. It was my mistake. I was just sitting back there.† She motioned behind her to a seating area. â€Å"You looked rather like the duke as you walked by.† This must be the fiancee, Jack realized. How interesting. It was difficult to imagine why Wyndham was dragging his heels on the marriage. He swept into a gracious bow. â€Å"Captain Jack Audley, at your service, ma’am.† It had been some time since he’d introduced himself with his military rank, but somehow it seemed the thing to do. She bobbed a polite curtsy. â€Å"Lady Amelia Willoughby.† â€Å"Wyndham’s fiancee.† â€Å"You know him, then? Oh, well, of course you do. You are a guest here. Oh, you must be his fencing partner.† â€Å"He told you about me?† The day grew more interesting by the second. â€Å"Not much,† she admitted. She blinked, staring at a spot that was not his eyes. He realized that she was looking at his cheek, which was still discolored from his altercation with her fiance the day before. â€Å"Ah, this,† he murmured, affecting mild embarrassment. â€Å"It looks much worse than it actually is. You read "The Lost Duke of Wyndham Chapter Twelve" in category "Essay examples"† She wanted to ask about it. He could see it in her eyes. He wondered if she’d seen Wyndham’s blackened eye. That would certainly set her curiosity on fire. â€Å"Tell me, Lady Amelia,† he said conversationally, â€Å"what color is it today?† â€Å"Your cheek?† she asked with some surprise. â€Å"Indeed. Bruises tend to look worse as they age, have you noticed? Yesterday it was quite purple, almost regally so, with a hint of blue in it. I haven’t checked in the mirror lately.† He turned his head to offer her a better view. â€Å"Is it still as attractive?† Her eyes widened, and for a moment she seemed not to know what to say. Jack wondered if she was unused to men flirting with her. Shame on Wyndham. He had done her a great disservice. â€Å"Er, no,† she replied. â€Å"I would not call it attractive.† He laughed. â€Å"No mincing words for you, eh?† â€Å"I’m afraid those blue undertones of which you were so proud have gone a bit green.† He leaned in with a warm smile. â€Å"To match my eyes?† â€Å"No,† she said, seemingly immune to his charms, â€Å"not with the purple overlaying it. It looks quite horrible.† â€Å"Purple mixed with green makes†¦?† â€Å"Quite a mess.† Jack laughed again. â€Å"You are charming, Lady Amelia. But I am sure your fiance tells you that on every possible occasion.† She did not reply. Not that she could; her only possible answers were yes, which would reveal her conceit, or no, which would reveal Wyndham’s negligence. Neither was what a lady wished to show to the world. â€Å"Do you await him here?† he asked, thinking to himself that it was time to end the conversation. Lady Amelia was charming, and he could not deny a certain level of entertainment that came from making her acquaintance without Wyndham’s knowledge, but he was still a bit wound up inside, and he was looking forward to time out of doors. â€Å"No, I just – † She cleared her throat. â€Å"I am here to see Miss Eversleigh.† Grace? And who was to say that a man could not acquire a bit of fresh air in a drawing room? One had only to crack open a window. â€Å"Have you met Miss Eversleigh?† Lady Amelia asked. â€Å"Indeed I have. She is most lovely.† â€Å"Yes.† There was a pause, just long enough for Jack to wonder at it. â€Å"She is universally admired,† Lady Amelia finished. Jack thought about making trouble for Wyndham. A simple, murmured, It must be difficult for you, with so beautiful a lady in residence here at Belgrave, would go a long way. But it would make equal trouble for Grace, which he was not prepared to do. And so instead he chose the bland and boring: â€Å"Are you and Miss Eversleigh acquaintances?† â€Å"Yes. I mean, no. More than that, I should say. I have known Grace since childhood. She is most friendly with my elder sister.† â€Å"And surely with you, as well.† â€Å"Of course.† Lady Amelia acceded. â€Å"But more so with my sister. They are of an age, you see.† â€Å"Ah, the plight of the younger sibling,† he murmured. â€Å"You share the experience?† â€Å"Not at all,† he said with a grin. â€Å"I was the one ignoring the hangers-on.† He thought back to his days with the Audleys. Edward had been but six months younger, and Arthur a mere eighteen months after that. Poor Arthur had been left out of any number of escapades, and yet wasn’t it interesting – it was Arthur with whom he had ultimately formed the strongest bond. Arthur had been uncommonly perceptive. They shared that. Jack had always been good at reading people. He’d had to. Sometimes it was his only means of gathering information. But as a boy he’d viewed Arthur as an annoying little whelp; it wasn’t until they were both students at Portora Royal that he realized that Arthur saw everything, too. And although he had never come out and said it, Jack knew that he’d seen everything in him as well. But he refused to grow maudlin. Not right now, not with a charming lady for company and the promise of another at any moment. And so he pushed more happy thoughts of Arthur to the forefront of his mind and said, â€Å"I was the eldest of the brood. A fortuitous position, I think. I should have been most unhappy not to have been in charge.† Lady Amelia smiled at that. â€Å"I am the second of five, so I can appreciate your sentiments as well.† â€Å"Five! All girls?† he guessed. â€Å"How did you know?† â€Å"I have no idea,† he said quite honestly, â€Å"except that it is such a charming image. It would have been a shame to have sullied it with a male.† â€Å"Is your tongue always this silver, Captain Audley?† He gave her one of his best half smiles. â€Å"Except when it’s gold.† â€Å"Amelia!† They both turned. Grace had entered the room. â€Å"And Mr. Audley,† she said, looking surprised to see him there. â€Å"Oh, I’m sorry,† Lady Amelia said, turning to him. â€Å"I thought it was Captain Audley.† â€Å"It is,† he said with a very slight shrug. â€Å"Depending upon my mood.† He turned to Grace and bowed. â€Å"It is indeed a privilege to see you again so soon, Miss Eversleigh.† She blushed. He wondered if Lady Amelia noticed. â€Å"I did not realize you were here,† Grace said after bobbing a curtsy. â€Å"There is no reason why you should have done. I was heading outside for a restorative walk when Lady Amelia intercepted me.† â€Å"I thought he was Wyndham,† Lady Amelia said. â€Å"Isn’t that the oddest thing?† â€Å"Indeed,† Grace replied, looking acutely uncomfortable. â€Å"Of course I was not paying much attention,† Lady Amelia continued, â€Å"which I am sure explains it. I only caught sight of him out of the corner of my eye as he strode past the open doorway.† Jack turned to Grace. â€Å"It makes so much sense when put that way, does it not?† â€Å"So much sense,† Grace echoed. She glanced over her shoulder. â€Å"Are you waiting for someone, Miss Eversleigh?† Jack inquired. â€Å"No, I was just thinking that his grace might like to join us. Er, since his fiancee is here, of course.† â€Å"Is he returned, then?† Jack murmured. â€Å"I was not aware.† â€Å"That is what I have been told,† Grace said, and he was certain that she was lying, although he could not imagine why. â€Å"I have not seen him myself.† â€Å"Alas,† Jack said, â€Å"he has been absent for some time.† Grace swallowed. â€Å"I think I should get him.† â€Å"But you only just got here.† â€Å"Nonetheless – â€Å" â€Å"We shall ring for him,† Jack said, since he wasn’t going to allow her such an easy escape. Not to mention that he was rather looking forward to the duke discovering him here with both Grace and Lady Amelia. He crossed the room and gave the bellpull a yank. â€Å"There,† he said. â€Å"It is done.† Grace smiled uncomfortably and moved to the sofa. â€Å"I believe I will sit down.† â€Å"I will join you,† Lady Amelia said with alacrity. She hurried after Grace and took a seat right beside her. Together they sat, stiff and awkward. â€Å"What a fetching tableau the two of you make,† he said, because really, how could he not tease them? â€Å"And me, without my oils.† â€Å"Do you paint, Mr. Audley?† Lady Amelia inquired. â€Å"Alas, no. But I have been thinking I might take some lessons. It is a noble pursuit for a gentleman, wouldn’t you say?† â€Å"Oh, indeed.† Silence, then Lady Amelia nudged Grace. â€Å"Mr. Audley is a great appreciator of art,† Grace blurted out. â€Å"You must be enjoying your stay at Belgrave, then,† Lady Amelia said. Her face was the perfect picture of polite interest. He wondered how long it had taken her to hone the expression. As the daughter of an earl, she would have any number of social obligations. He imagined that the expression – placid and unmoving, yet not unfriendly – was quite useful. â€Å"I look forward to touring the collections,† Jack replied. â€Å"Miss Eversleigh has consented to show them to me.† Lady Amelia turned to Grace as best she could, considering that they were wedged up against one another. â€Å"That was very kind of you, Grace.† Grace grunted something that was probably meant to be a response. â€Å"We plan to avoid cupids,† Jack said. â€Å"Cupids?† Lady Amelia echoed. Grace looked the other way. â€Å"I have discovered that I am not fond of them.† Lady Amelia regarded him with a curious mixture of irritation and disbelief. Jack glanced at Grace to gauge her reaction, then returned his attention to Lady Amelia. â€Å"I can see that you disagree, Lady Amelia.† â€Å"What is there not to like about cupids?† He perched himself on the arm of the opposite sofa. â€Å"You don’t find them rather dangerous?† â€Å"Chubby little babies?† â€Å"Carrying deadly weapons,† he reminded her. â€Å"They are not real arrows.† He made another attempt to draw Grace into the conversation. â€Å"What do you think, Miss Eversleigh?† â€Å"I don’t often think about cupids,† she said tersely. â€Å"And yet we have already discussed them twice, you and I.† â€Å"Because you brought them up.† Jack turned to Lady Amelia. â€Å"My dressing room is positively awash in them.† Lady Amelia turned to Grace. â€Å"You were in his dressing room?† â€Å"Not with him,† Grace practically snapped. â€Å"But I have certainly seen it before.† Jack smiled to himself, wondering what it said about him that he so liked making trouble. â€Å"Pardon,† Grace muttered, clearly embarrassed by her outburst. â€Å"Mr. Audley,† Lady Amelia said, turning to him with determination. â€Å"Lady Amelia.† â€Å"Would it be rude if Miss Eversleigh and I took a turn about the room?† â€Å"Of course not,† he said, even though he could see in her face that in fact she did think it was rude. But he did not mind. If the ladies wished to share confidences, he was not going to stand in their way. Besides, he enjoyed watching Grace move. â€Å"Thank you for your understanding,† Lady Amelia said, linking her arm through Grace’s and pulling them both to their feet. â€Å"I do feel the need to stretch my legs, and I fear that your stride would be far too brisk for a lady.† How she uttered that without choking on her tongue, he did not know. But he merely smiled and watched them as they moved as one to the window, leaving him behind and out of earshot. How to cite The Lost Duke of Wyndham Chapter Twelve, Essay examples

Casing Milling free essay sample

Abstract Sidetracking has been proven to be a cost saving solution over drilling new horizontal wells to increase production from existing wells. Most problems that might be encountered when removing casing can be identified prior to beginning a lining removal job. By identifying these potential problems, the proper equipment can be used effectively to keep the job running smoothly. Technical advances in mill design such as the development of a cutting structure that effectively manages the cuttings size and is more wear resistant has increased the efficiency of the entire operation. Introduction A cost effective means to enhance production and provide for reservoir stimulation from existing platforms is to sidetrack wells from existing slots to reach new bottom hole locations. In the process of recovering these slots to facilitate the sidetrack, one or more casing strings must e removed from the existing well. Casing removal is accomplished by a combination of process such as cutting, pulling and milling. We will write a custom essay sample on Casing Milling or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In typical wells 13 3/8† and 9 5/8† casing is cut and pulled from the well. Liners from 5 ? † through 9 5. 8† may be milled to facilitate their removal. Liners and casing cemented to the surface require removal by milling long intervals which have historically been slow and at best, time consuming process. Numerous operational problems exist including difficulty in cuttings removal and potentially stuck string from â€Å"bird-nesting† of cuttings. With new technology available, these problems can be eliminated or minimized to make liner removal a low risk economical choice for slot recovery. This paper describes the process for recovering these platform slots and provides a review of new technology that enhances the economics of the process. Case studies will show how proper selection of the BHA, mud and mud handling system, mill design, and milling parameters make slot recovery and liner removal fast and economical. Many of the problems associated with past practices are eliminated. Milling Considerations Prior to embarking on a prolonged milling job, there are a number of issues that should be considered. These considerations can mean the difference between a project being completed on time and on budget or project running into multiple problems and costing much more than anticipated. With proper preplanning the probability of performing a good effective job will be greatly increased. Casing milling jobs are now being planned and completed at hole angles above 50 60 degrees and through long tangent sections. In the pat without the assistance of technology, these types of jobs would have a high degree of uncertainty of being completed. The result was that a section would be cut or a Whipstock would be set to facilitate a sidetrack far above the desired target depth for the completed milling job. It is important to consider the following before beginning a job: (1) Casing eccentricity, (2) Cutting removal, and (3) Pilot mill design. Casing Eccentricity. An important aspect of planning a milling job is to determine if there is any eccentricity between the casing strings. This is an important consideration for determining the proper stabilization below the pilot mill. If the inner casing to be milled is held in place with cement and with casing centralizers installed then there is a good chance that the casing strings will be concentric with one another. Therefore, the stabilizer OD of the pilot assembly should be the drift ID of the inner casing string being milled. This will ensure that the mil tracks true to the centerline of the inner casing. It will also ensure that the collars are milled completely. If the collars are not completely milled, problems can be encountered at a later time when the skinned collar is circulated to the surface. Usually this results in a plugged flow line. Should the casing not have centralizers installed and the hole angle is 30 degrees or more, it is safe to assume that the casing strings are eccentric. This will require a different strategy. A reduced OD stabilizer will be required below the mill to allow it to walk away from the ID of the casing being milled. This will prevent the mill from milling into the primary string casing. This is important because it is usually required that the primary string of casing still be testable after milling is complete. This is particularly important on wells where the hole angle is great enough that a large side load may be placed on the mill. A properly design mill with gage protection on the OD of the blades will also help protect from milling the primary string of casing. Cutting Removal Removal of cuttings during milling has a great impact on the success of a milling job. If cuttings are not removed quickly and efficiently then downtime due to bird-nesting can become a problem. Bird-nesting occurs whenever a large number of cuttings accumulate in an area in the annulus. Surface equipment, flow line configuration, and milling fluids all become important for proper cutting removal. Surface Equipment A typical arrangement of flow equipment needed to remove cuttings on the surface is as follows. Flow is routed from the bell nipple through open flow ditches to two shale shakers with primary 24 to 50 mesh screens. The fluid then exits the shale shaker through secondary 84 to 110 mesh screens. Large ditch magnets are strategically placed in the flow line and suction intakes. The magnets should be cleaned by rig personnel every half hour to remove settled swarf. Flow line Configuration To avoid flip-out of swarf in the bell nipple and BOP riser and the subsequent bird-nesting and pack-offs, it is necessary to reduce the size of the BOP and bell nipple riser from 30† to13 3/8†. This will allow a higher annular velocity to keep the BOP and BOP riser clear of swarf. It is important that the flow lines from the riser to the shakers be as large and straight as possible with all valves removed. There should not be any obstructions in the flow lines to allow a bird-nest to form. Milling fluids The selection of the proper milling fluid is critical to a successful milling job. Polymer based fluids are generally preferable because of their increased lifting capacity. In order to obtain the maximum lifting capacity of the fluid it is preferable to keep the 6 rpm viscometer reading above 45 and the plastic viscosity as low as possible.

Project plan Emirates airline and fly Dubai

Executive summary Emirates airline and Fly Dubai provides flight services from the United Arab Emirates to different parts of the world. Fly Dubai is a low-cost airline based in Dubai and provides flights to other destinations. It is rapidly expanding its operations in getting into the international scene. The airline connects with the Emirates airlines to provide flights for the Emirates customers to destinations not served by the Emirates.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Project plan: Emirates airline and fly Dubai specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The airlines have purposed to renovate one of the terminals of the Dubai international airport to improve on the quality of their services. The intended project is a construction of a double perimeter fence all round the terminal. This will improve on the security at the airport leading to increased customer and employee satisfaction. More customers will be attra cted to the services of the airline. Similarly, the employees will be motivated thereby improving on their output. As such, the project has objectives that are in line with the objectives of the different airlines. The perimeter-fencing project is divided into several activities ranging from the initial training on project management, through the construction processes to the final installation of CCTV. Each of these activities has an estimated duration. The whole project is intended to take ten months (about 40 weeks). The project will cost about Dh 100 million (equivalent to about $ 25 million). It is to be executed in the 2011/2012 financial year. The identification of the different activities involved in the project and the precedence relation is essential in ensuring that the project runs smoothly. A Gantt chart showing the start and finish time of each activity as well as their precedence relations will be use in monitoring the progress of the project. By examining the Gantt c hart, activities critical to the project like conducting training, recruitment of professionals, excavation, and the construction of the concrete wall are identified. Much resource can then be channeled to these activities as opposed to the less critical ones to ensure that the project is completed in time. The success of the project will depend on the cooperation of the different individuals involved. Proper communication between the project stakeholders is essential in minimizing the risks involved in the project.Advertising Looking for assessment on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Introduction Fly Dubai is an airline that was founded in 2008 to provide low-cost air transport services in the Middle East countries. The airline has its headquarters in Dubai, United Arabs Emirates. It started its flights operations in 2009 with a daily return flight between Dubai and Beirut (Flemming 2009). It was also inten ded to provide daily return flight between Dubai and Amman. The airline was expected to have rapid expansion and offer flights to the other countries in the Middle East, India, parts of Europe, and northern and East Africa (Flemming, 2009). In deed, the airline has had significant growth in its operations over the short period. As a step towards expansion of its operations, Fly Dubai often connect with Emirates airlines to provide flights to some areas that were not served by Emirates. The Emirates customers destined to regions like Djibouti and Alexandria can ‘connect through Dubai to and from an Emirates flight’ (Connecting with flydubai). In order to improve on its operations, Fly Dubai with the support of the Emirates airline has purposed to reconstruct the perimeter fence of the Dubai airport terminal 2, one of the terminals at the Dubai International Airport. Fly Dubai has concrete management team with professionals with modern technical skills.. The issue of secu rity is fundamental in different business and even non-profit organizations. Security becomes one of the key performance drivers in these organizations. Industrial and commercial organizations are more concerned with the security of their premises. One of the measures that can be taken to ensure security of these premises is perimeter fencing. Perimeter fencing can be ‘used very effectively to help with warehouse security, factories, schools, and car park security [whereas] electric powered fencing is important as perimeter security for military bases, power stations, prisons, and construction sites’ (Advanced Perimeter Systems Limited, 2011). CCTV surveillance is essential in detecting agents of a criminal or terrorist act that has occurred in a given situation. The airport has facilities that should be protected in much the same way as those in other business premises. Similarly, there is need to ensure that no criminal and terrorist acts are committed in the internat ional hub. This is achievable if proper screening is possible for thus entering the airport.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Project plan: Emirates airline and fly Dubai specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thus, the project that is to be considered in this case is perimeter fencing to ensure security in the airport. It will not only include the construction of a physical barrier around the airport but also an establishment of electric powered fence on the perimeter. The project will be accomplished by an installation of CCTV within and around the airport. The project plan Goals and objectives of the project The goals and the objectives of this project are strategically defined in line with the overall business goals and objectives of the organization. The organization is a provider of transport services to passengers and goods. Thus, it aims at increasing its market share by attracting and retaining many clien ts in order to ensure sustainability of its operations. In order to achieve this, the organization intends to provide high quality services to its customers. It also aims at providing a safe working environment for its employees. It is the need of the organization also to operate according to the legal provisions within the United Arabs Emirates and across the borders. An improvement on the airport facilities is one of the measures for ensuring that these business objectives are achieved. The perimeter fencing helps in preventing crimes and terrorist attacks thereby improving security at the airport. This is a busy airport serving several passengers and a number of air cargos with millions of tons of freight and mail. Proper perimeter fencing of the airport will improve on the international recognition of the facility. The airport is a source of employment for thousands of people and a key contributor towards economic development. The safety at the airport is thus very essential in the local and international scene. High level of security in the airport will define the quality of services provided to the customers. More clients will be attracted to the services of organization thereby increasing the market share of the organization. This is in line with the business objectives. Assessment of the business case for the project Reasons for the project The perimeter-fencing project is important for a number of reasons. One reason of the perimeter fencing is enhancement of security (Free No-Hassle Estimate, 2011). The completion of the projects will ensure that only authorized genuine travelers are allowed into the airport. Another reason that is also related with security is the privacy of the airport.Advertising Looking for assessment on project management? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The airport is fenced to ensure privacy of some of the operations. Planning of crimes and other terrorist attacks can be minimized of some of the operations such as preparations for departure are kept private. This achieved through proper perimeter fencing. Perimeter fencing is also done for aesthetic purpose (Free No-Hassle Estimate, 2011). It is aimed at improving the physical attractiveness of the airport. The costs The project is projected to cost about Dh. 100million. The airport is intended to have a double fence, a concrete wall, and an electric powered chain link. The amount is subdivided to different activities within the project. This include purchase of construction materials for the concrete wall (Dh 30 million), payment of salaries and wages for the laborers during construction (Dh 24 million), purchase of materials and construction of electric fence (Dh 20 million) and installation of CCTV (Dh 20million). The remaining Dh 6million is left to cater for the emerging issu es during the execution of the whole project. Benefits of the project As has been stated, the project has certain benefits to the organization. It will save the organization the losses that are incurred due to crimes carried out in the airport. This initiative will also ensure compliance with legal provisions. As such, the organization is not bound to suffer other losses like fines by relevant regulatory agencies. The improved security and the attractiveness of the airport will attract more clients to the organization. This will increase the sales at the organization thereby ensuring sustainable operations. The improved working environment will also boost the morale of the airport workers who will in turn deliver their duties responsibly. This will improve on the total output of the organization. Thus, there is linkage between security at the airport, customer satisfaction, and employee satisfaction in the organization. Timescales The project will be implemented in the FY 2011/2012. The project is intended to take a period of about 10 months. However, the benefits of the projects will not be evidenced immediately after its completion. The improved sales and increased customer satisfaction will be evidenced at least a year after the completion of the project. Investment appraisal The organization could carry out, including forgoing the perimeter fencing completely, other alternative projects. It could employee security officers to patrol the areas surrounding the airport in order to detect and prevent intended terrorist attacks and other criminal acts. This is not only costly but also unreliable due to expanse of the surrounding geographical area. The intended project has to be beneficial to the organization. In deed, the perimeter-fencing project is among the most critical. It is estimated that rate of return on this will be about 40% annually. On the hand, the losses that can be associated with forgoing the projects are huge, irregular and may not be predicte d. Assumptions and constraints The business case is based on certain assumptions. Firstly, it is assumed that it is a legal requirement to fence facilities like airport. It is also assumed that the management of the organization is willing to implement the project given the necessary resources. It is also assumed that resources are available. However, the extent of the operations will be regulated by the scarcity of the available resources. The appropriate project planning and management tools The project can be easily managed if it is broken down into simpler subdivisions of project tasks termed as activities. The whole project is divided into two broad categories of activities corresponding to the construction of the two fences. The perimeter-fencing project starts with the construction of inner concrete wall. The activities corresponding to the construction outer fence begin after the trenches have been laid. It is important that the project should be completely exhausted so that all the tasks are included in some activity (Construction planning, n.d). Some of the activities that constitute the whole project have some relations. There are activities that have to be carried out before others can be initiated whereas other activities can be performed simultaneously. There are estimates for the duration to be taken by each of the activities that make up the project. Some activities may not have duration but have to be categorized as activities since the commencement of other activities will depend on them (Construction planning, n.d). There are activities whose start time or completion time can be delayed without affecting the completion time for the project. On the other hand, there activities whose start and finish time cannot be delayed without delaying the whole projects. These are termed as critical activities and a trade-off of resources can be carried out to ensure that there executions are not interrupted. It is important to identify such activities th at depend on the completion of other activities in the entire project chain without time floats. This is necessary to estimate the total project completion time. The project has been broken down to different activities. Some of the activities involve other separate tasks that have been grouped together. The activities involved in the project and their estimated durations in weeks are provided here below. Conducting training and education on project management to different personnel within the organization (3) Procurement of construction materials for the concrete wall (2) Recruitment of skilled professionals (4) Recruitment of unskilled laborers (3) General excavation and demolishing the existing fence (3) Excavation for the utility trenches (4) Construction of the wall (18) Procurement of the construction materials for the outer chain link fence (3) Placement of the framework for the fence (3) Construction of the fence (3) Installation of the electric powered fence above the chain link (2) Constructions of gates (6) Installation of CCTV (2) The above activities have precedence relations that can be defined as follows. The management of the projects will be accomplished by the personnel in the organization and not the hired professionals. It is then necessary to have the different individuals trained before the other activities of the projects can be carried out. Thus, activity A will be the predecessor of all the other activities in the project. Activities B, C, and D can all be done simultaneously after A. Activity E can only be performed after C and D are accomplished since the excavation will require both skilled and unskilled laborers. The excavation for utility trenches (activity F) then follows activity E. The activity G involves the construction of the concrete wall as well as making installations like lighting system. Activities H and I can be performed simultaneously after the completion of activity F (Excavation for the utility trenches). The comp letion of both activities is necessary for the commencement of activity J. Gates will be constructed corresponding to the two layers of fences. Thus, the commencement of activity K has to follow the completion of the activities G and J. the last activity in the project will the installation of CCTV (activity M). Monitoring and control of the project A critical path analysis of the network developed by the above activities indicates that the activities A, C, E, F, G, L, and M fall on the critical paths and the total estimated completion time for the project is 40 weeks. The available resources will be channeled more towards these crucial activities in order to ensure that the set duration of ten months is not exceeded. Some of the have floats and can be delayed for sometime without delaying the whole project. For instance, the start of activity B can be delayed by a maximum of two weeks without affecting the successive projects. Activity D may also be delayed by one week without affe cting activity E. The floats will enable the monitoring and evaluating team to allocate much resource like human hour on the crucial activity to improve the completion time for the project. To monitor the progress of the activities, a Gantt chart will be helpful in providing a visual impression of the activities that should have been performed at a given time (GANTTCHARTS, 2011). The Gantt chart indicates the activities that can be delayed without affecting the project completion time. It shows the starting dates and expected completion dates of the activities (Ganttcharts, 2011). The Gant chart will also indicate the dependency between different activities in the whole project (Sodipo, 2008, p.158). It is then possible to crass the project depending on the resources available. This involves performing a trade-off between time and the available resources until it is uneconomical to reduce further the duration. Managing risks The project may fail to be implemented even if the resourc es are available. This happens since the different stages of the project from its definition and diagnosis to the implementation and final usage involve different individuals. Different levels of stakeholders exist in the process of executing the project. This includes the primary stakeholders, secondary stakeholders and the peripheral stakeholders. Some failures may occur due to a misunderstanding among different stakeholders. This misunderstanding is in turn caused by poor and untimely communication between the key stakeholders. The failures may be minimized through proper identification of the objectives of a given project and the key stakeholders of the project. In this case, an effective means of communication is then identified that ensure a common understanding of the project and its objectives by all the concerned personnel. The timely communication will enable the concerned individuals to provide their opinions concerning the intended project. It will be possible to learn a bout the opinions that are opposed to the project. The conflicting issues that arise may be ironed in time in favor of the project. The different individuals concerned with this particular project have been identified. The different boards have an effective communication with each other and the arising issues can be tackled easily. Failures are also avoided by allocating the responsibilities to the right individuals. Most of the activities involved in this project require expertise in the relevant areas. Proper care will be taken to ensure that the right professionals and skilled workers are hired to carry out such activities. The human resource section in conjunction with the IT Project manager will be responsible for the recruitment of the right professionals for the different assignment. Conclusion The importance of this project for improved operations at the airport is evidenced. The success of the project will depend on the cooperation of all the stakeholders involved in the pr oject. Proper communication of the intended projects to the various stakeholders is essential in ensuring its success. There is need to have a proper coordination of all the activities involved in the organization. Much attention should be given to the critical activities that have been identified in the project. It is also important to examine the previous projects that had been carried out and the challenges that were faced. The failures for this project can be anticipated from the failures that have been experienced in the other projects that have been carried out by the organization. Reference List Advanced Perimeter Systems Limited. 2011. Perimeter Fencing, Electric Perimeter Fencing, Perimeter Management CCTV. Web. Connecting with flydubai. 2011. Emirates can now provide through connections to selected flydubai destinations. Web. Construction planning. N.d. Defining precedence relationship among activities. Web. Flemming, A., 2009. Fly Dubai – Low Cost Airlines Informat ion for Fly Dubai. Web. Free No-Hassle Estimate. 2011. Perimeter fencing. Web. Ganttcharts. 2011. About Gantt charts. Web. Sodipo, E., 2008. Project Management Explained. NY. Web. This assessment on Project plan: Emirates airline and fly Dubai was written and submitted by user Tomas Thompson to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Dale Earnhart essays

Dale Earnhart essays This biography is based on the life of one of the greatest drivers of all times in NASCAR history known as Dale Earnhardt, also known as The Intimidator. Leigh Montville, one of Dales greatest fans, wrote this book. Its about a life on the fast lanes going through so much business and hard times. How someone can be promoted with so many sponsors that he just forgets where hes from and go through so much hard times not just driving, but also so much business. How it comes down to the greatest race of the season and losing a life. Dale Earnhardt was born on April 29, 1951 in Kannapolis, North Carolina. He was an inspired driver from his father Ralph Earnhardt who was a stock car racer on the dirt track. Seeing his father win so many races as racer Dale wanted to be just like him, like any boy would think. From that point on Dale dropped out of the ninth grade and started racing as a hobby. His father died in 1973 of a heart attack while working on his car on the track. Thats when it started getting serious when Dale joined the NASCAR league in the Winston Cup series in 1975 as a back-up driver and married a women by the name of Teresa and had four children. He started racing as a permanent driver to race his first full season in 1979 in the same series and was a racer for his career. In the next 2 decades he started working his way up to the top of the chart. He inspired a lot of people by winning some of the greatest races of his times. He was the only Winston driver to win Rookie of the Year and the Championship successive years and won 7 Winston cup championships. He won much more other awards like the NMPA driver of the year, The Winston award, Busch Clash Winner, IROC champion. It came to the point where for 20 years he set out his goal to win the biggest race of the season and that was the Daytona 500. He accomplished that goa ...

Investment Analysis and Security Valuation to a Real Life Situation Research Paper

Investment Analysis and Security Valuation to a Real Life Situation - Research Paper Example The scrip of the Almarai Company under the agriculture and food sector has been given a buy recommendation as it is a bull in the market which is also outperforming most of the other players of this sector. Almarai Company is one of the attractive stocks on the Saudi Stock Exchange Tadawul. The stock is actively traded. Eqarani (2012) has reviewed Almarai to be the largest integrated dairy company in the world, with a well recognized brand that was ranked number three in Forbes’s ‘Top-40 Arab Brands’ list. A snap shot taken out of the exchange and presented as Fig 1 depicts its active trading patterns. Fig1 The company has the authorized capital of 4000 million Saudi Arab Riyals and has issued 400 million shares of par value of 10 Riyals. The stock is trading at a level above 50 Riyals on Tadawul stock exchange. The company has a paid capital of 4000 million Riyals and its floated issued shares are 165,409,795. The company belongs to the agriculture and food secto r which is a tremendously growing sector of the economy of Saudi Arabia. The growth for this sector on the Tadawul in last one year is 29.21%. There are reasons. Saudi Arabia is the largest market in the middle-east for agricultural and food products. This sector of economy in Saudi Arabia is growing at a GDP of 8%. Agriculture products in Saudi Arabia account for more than 25% of the private sector investments. The companies not only produce for the local market but they are eying the export market also in the surrounding middle-east countries. All the more, the Saudi government has set its priority on becoming self dependent on the food front because still it is importing 70% of the food items. It is boon time for companies including multinationals for meteorically rise in this progressing economy. Almarai Company already holds a significant place in the economy. The company enjoys a robust health and is a mature company. It was established way back in 1977. The then chairman of t he company Prince Sultan bin Mohammed bin Saudi Al Kabeer worked with a vision to transform the tiny dairy farming industry into an efficient and professional giant that should be able to cater to the growing demands of its population and that too by making its products available at affordable costs. A few graphs presented below depict the consistent good performance of the company in last few years. Graph 1 (Years range from 1 to 4 on X-axis is 2008 to 2011) The Graph 1 shows that the revenue earned by the company is rising at a consistent rate of 8 to 10 per cent each subsequent year. This is an indicator of robust market position of the company. Graph 2 (Years range from 1 to 4 on X-axis is 2008 to 2011) The scenario of operating income is comfortable. The operating income in Dec’ 2011 is 1517 million riyals incrementing by 59 million riyals in comparison to the operating income level of 1459 million riyals in Dec’2010. In contrast to this the incremental enhancemen t in the operating income in Dec’2010 was 494 million riyals in comparison to its level of 965 million riyals in Dec’ 2009. This is a point of concern but at the same time the capital investment in the expansions done by the company explains this low incremental increase in Dec’2011. It is not that heavier in comparison to

Pro Life Campaign Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pro Life Campaign - Research Paper Example The group has had both moral as well as sectarian grounds to defend their stand and in most cases have even moved to court to oppose the legalization of abortion. The group argues that life begins at conception and any person who knowingly removes life should be punishable by law. They also argue that hospitals should not be allowed to perform this controversial procedure. This group does change their stand only on any grounds of incest, rape or situations when the mother’s life is at risk (Derr, 2005). Tactics The major tactics of pro-life is ultrasound legislation. This is where the group uses words to guilt mothers from taking an abortion. In most cases, the mothers feel the guilt and end up not doing the abortion but after some period of time, the same mothers come back for this procedure. This strategy even though has had some of its positive impacts; in most cases it has only been successful for some periods of time. The group also uses biblical statements to make their stands arguing that God does not promote abortion. This only works out for the few people who are religious and believe in God. However, there are people who have no religious beliefs and so they always go ahead and perform the procedure. As a result of this, the pro life organizers have been able to go to court to help convince the legislators to stop this inhumane act and in some states; this has been a success with most of the states accepting to illegalize this act only allowing it in certain circumstances (Prolife Alliance, 2007). The other tactic that the group is using is education. The group realized that responsibility can only be instilled through proper education into the minds of people. They do this by talking to teenagers and adults separately about the responsibility that comes with sexuality. They also advice women on safe sex and encourage them to always learn that abortion is never the only option that is available. The group always teaches the girls on other optio ns that are available for the baby in case they don’t want the baby. They can always think of other ideas such as foster care that provides care to children who are neglected. In most cases, this strategy has been very beneficial and most of the women have had to change their minds on abortion and have opted for other available options. In most cases, the government has also moved in to support this course of action since abortion has become a national issue and with women demanding for their rights, it has been a challenge convincing them against this action. Education strategies have therefore helped a lot (Alcorn, 2002). The other major strategy that the group uses is the shock and awe strategy. This is where they present pictures of dead infants and other disgusting images that make the public see the real truth in abortion. This has greatly touched many mothers and as a result, they have opted for other options other than abortion. This technique has been successful espe cially with commercial sex workers who are one of the largest populations that have abortion every year. Most Americans support prolife activities mainly because of this technique. The technique has not only touched the mothers but the general public as well. This has drawn debates and other public awareness campaigns to make abortion illegal and to educate girls and anyone affected on alternative methods (Alcorn, 2004). Legality Though pro life organizers have been met with different legal challenges, the movement is completely legal and its mission and vision have no illegal intention in them. However, the group has received a lot of threats from various groups. Many of the anti pro-choice organizers have moved to

Theoretical aspects of the phenomenon of child soldiers and scientific Essay

Theoretical aspects of the phenomenon of child soldiers and scientific issues related to the topic - Essay Example During colonial campaigns, armies would capture the children of prominent chieftains and raise them according to the colonial nation’s customs and laws. Nazi Germany used Hitler Youth movement to try to fight the Allied forces in the closing days of World War II. However each of these cases was isolated by time and geography. They were also exceptions to the level of armed combat which children performed. Ancient wars involved minors as charioteers and armor bearers for adult warriors. This practice can be found in the Bible. War in the middle ages was fought by strong men who had the physical strength to fight in those wars. Children were only used for support roles as they could not be participants in armed combat. The Roman army for instance required physical fitness as criteria for military service which only adult combatants could perform. Fighting with swords, spears, shields and heavy weapons required the use of adult combatants. During the middle ages, military units comprised of knights, heavy cavalry and infantry were extensively used in combat. They used armor and weapons which only adults could perform. The modern era of warfare began with the use of gunpowder. The modern nature of conflict saw the extensive use of muskets, cannons and cavalry against opponents. The weapons and training required to operate these weapons could only be performed by adult combatants. The adv ent of the industrial age also revolutionized the concept of warfare. By the twentieth century, modern armies were now using tanks, cannons, artillery, fighter jets, submarines and naval warships against each other. Again the use of children was mostly for support roles rather than combat purposes since the expertise required to train and use these weapons was only possible for adult combatants. During the middle ages, young boys were used as squires but their

Space Power as Force Multiplier

Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0 Space Power as Force Multiplier Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0